Ivan Shishkin, Rye (1878)

Problems/General algebraReviewed

Finite groups with 3 conjugacy classes

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Let GG be a finite group with exactly 3 conjugacy classes. Show that GG is isomorphic to the cyclic group Z/3Z\mathbb{Z}/3\mathbb{Z} or the permutation group S3S_3.

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Solution by Sequoia

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Let GG act on X:=GX:=G by conjugation, that is via the action (g,x)G×Xgx=gxg1G(g,x)\in G\times X\longmapsto g\cdot x=gxg^{-1}\in G.

Thus the orbit of xx under this action is Ox:={gxg1,gG}O_x:=\{gxg^{-1}, g\in G\}, i.e., the conjugacy class of xx, and its stabilizer is Stab(x):={gG/gxg1=x}Stab(x):=\{g\in G/ gxg^{-1}=x\}, i.e., the set of elements that commute with xx.

We know that the set of orbits forms a partition of XX, that is, there exist x1,,xrXx_1,\dots,x_r\in X such that X=i=1rOxiX=\bigsqcup_{i=1}^r O_{x_i}. But there are only three conjugacy classes here, so r=3r=3. Also, one of these classes contains the identity element ee, whose orbit is reduced to itself since it commutes with everyone. We thus have the equality X={e}OxOyX=\{e\}\sqcup O_x\sqcup O_y for some x,yXx,y\in X.

Let us now consider cardinalities: we find #G=1+#Ox+#Oy\#G=1+\#O_x+\#O_y. But the cardinalities #Ox\#O_x and #Oy\#O_y can also be written as #G#Stab(x)\frac{\#G}{\#Stab(x)} (samely for yy), so we finally obtain
#G=1+#G(1#Stab(x)+1#Stab(y)).\#G=1+\#G\left(\frac{1}{\#Stab(x)}+\frac{1}{\#Stab(y)}\right).

Which can be rewritten as
#Stab(x)#Stab(y)(#G1)=#G(#Stab(x)+#Stab(y))\#Stab(x)\cdot\#Stab(y)\cdot(\#G-1)=\#G\cdot(\#Stab(x)+\#Stab(y))But since #G\#G and #G1\#G-1 have gcd 11, then #G1\#G-1 divides #Stab(x)+#Stab(y)\#Stab(x)+\#Stab(y). However Stab(x)Stab(x) and Stab(y)Stab(y) are subgroups of GG. Say that one of them equal GG, then #G1\#G-1 divides the cardinality of the other one minus one, and so it also has to equal GG. But Stab(x)=GStab(x)=G iff xx commutes with any element of GG and samely for yy. Hence G=Z/3ZG=\Z/3\Z.

Now assume that both Stab(x)Stab(x) and Stab(x)Stab(x) do not equal GG. Then, by Lagrange formula, their cardinal has to be less than or equal to #G2\frac{\#G}{2}, so their sum has to be less than #G\#G and is a multiple of #G1\#G-1. Hence it has to equal #G1\#G-1.
Finally one gets the two equations:
#G1=#Stab(x)+#Stab(y)and#G=#Stab(x)#Stab(y).\#G-1=\#Stab(x)+\#Stab(y)\,\,\text{and}\,\,\#G=\#Stab(x)\cdot\#Stab(y).

Since we know that eStab(x)Stab(y)e\in Stab(x)\cap Stab(y), let us write a:=#Stab(x)1a:=\#Stab(x)-1 and b:=#Stab(y)1b:=\#Stab(y)-1, which gives a+b=#G3a+b=\#G-3 and 2=ab2=ab. Hence, without loss of generality, one deduces that a=2a=2 and b=1b=1 hence #Stab(x)=3,#Stab(y)=2\#Stab(x)=3,\#Stab(y)=2 and #G=6\#G=6.

Finally, there exists only one non-abelian group of order 66 (it has to be non-abelian to have only 33 conjugacy classes), which is S3S_3. This concludes the proof.

Solution by visitorFR

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Solution par les sous-groupes distingués

Observation initiale. Un sous-groupe distingué de GG est une réunion de classes de conjugaison contenant ee. Comme GG n’a que trois classes, G={e}ABG=\{e\}\sqcup A\sqcup B, il n’y a que quatre sous-groupes distingués possibles :
{e},{e}A,{e}B,G.\{e\},\qquad \{e\}\cup A,\qquad \{e\}\cup B,\qquad G.

Cas abélien. Si GG est abélien, chaque classe est un singleton, donc G=3|G|=3 et GZ/3ZG\simeq\mathbb{Z}/3\mathbb{Z}.

Cas non abélien. Supposons GG non abélien : son groupe dérivé GG' est distingué et non trivial. Montrons d’abord que GGG'\neq G. Si G=GG'=G, le groupe GG n’a aucun quotient abélien non trivial ; on écarte ce cas à la fin.

Supposons donc {e}GG\{e\}\neq G'\neq G. Quitte à échanger les noms, G={e}AG'=\{e\}\cup A. Le quotient G/GG/G' est abélien, et l’image de BB y forme une seule classe : G/GG/G' a exactement deux éléments, donc
G/G=2,G=G2=1+A.|G/G'|=2,\qquad |G'|=\frac{|G|}{2}=1+|A|.Or A|A| divise G=2A+2|G|=2|A|+2, donc A|A| divise 22.

  • Si A=1|A|=1, alors G=4|G|=4 : tout groupe d’ordre 44 est abélien, contradiction.
  • Si A=2|A|=2, alors G=6|G|=6 et G=3|G'|=3, donc GZ/3ZG'\simeq\mathbb{Z}/3\mathbb{Z}.

Identification. On a GGG'\trianglelefteq G d’indice 22, engendré par un élément aa d’ordre 33. Soit bGGb\in G\setminus G' ; son image dans G/GG/G' est d’ordre 22, donc b2Gb^{2}\in G'. Si b2eb^{2}\neq e, alors bb serait d’ordre 66 et GG cyclique donc abélien : ainsi b2=eb^{2}=e. Enfin bab1Gbab^{-1}\in G' est d’ordre 33, donc vaut aa ou a2a^{2} ; le premier cas rendrait GG abélien. D’où
G=a,b,a3=b2=e,bab1=a2,G=\langle a,b\rangle,\qquad a^{3}=b^{2}=e,\qquad bab^{-1}=a^{2},c’est une présentation de S3\mathfrak{S}_3, donc GS3G\simeq\mathfrak{S}_3.

Le cas parfait. Reste à écarter G=GG'=G. L’équation aux classes donne G=1+A+B|G|=1+|A|+|B| avec A,B|A|,|B| divisant G|G|, donc
1=1G+1c1+1c2,ci=GA, GB 2.1=\frac{1}{|G|}+\frac{1}{c_1}+\frac{1}{c_2},\qquad c_i=\frac{|G|}{|A|},\ \frac{|G|}{|B|}\ \geqslant 2 .Le plus grand des trois termes vaut au moins 13\frac13, donc min(c1,c2)3\min(c_1,c_2)\leqslant 3. Si ce minimum vaut 22, on obtient 1G+1c=12\frac{1}{|G|}+\frac{1}{c}=\frac12 avec cGc\mid|G|, d’où G=6|G|=6 ; si le minimum vaut 33, alors 1G+1c=23\frac{1}{|G|}+\frac{1}{c}=\frac23 avec c3c\geqslant 3, d’où G=3|G|=3. Dans les deux cas GG admet un quotient abélien non trivial, donc GGG'\neq G. \blacksquare

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